Postcolonial literature

Postcolonial literature Postcolonial Literatures in English Title: What do you understand by the term postcolonial within the field of literary studies? You should refer to at least two texts you have read on the course. ‘Without responsibility, straddling Nothingness and Infinity, I began to weep. This comment of Fanons about the frustration of the inability to free ones black self from the oppressive aspects of racism and colonisation echoes through much of the postcolonial literature that has been studied throughout the course. Postcolonial literature refers to texts written about the effects of colonial rule after ‘the very first moment of colonial contact. Postcolonial authors often originate from colonised countries and, it seems to be the case that those writing about the consequences of colonisation have themselves encountered existence at the hand of the colonisers however; this is not always the case. What I aim to accomplish in this essay is to reveal the varied effects of colonisation on the colonised people in two of the texts that I have read on the course. I will be relating the experiences of those in Nervous Conditions, written by Tsitsi Dangarembga, alongside the occurrences in Miguel Street, written by V.S Naipaul. Although these two books are written by different authors and relay vastly contrasting happenings, there are significant similarities in both books which cannot be overlooked. Themes of childhood, education and struggle inevitably communicate through both novels in similar ways. What is most remarkable however is the method different characters in each narrative use in response to the strains caused, inevitably, by colonisation. Nervous Conditions, set in Zimbabwe around the 1960s or 1970s, portrays the developing life of a young female, also the narrator of the book, named Tambu. This coming-of-age novel reveals not only the trials and tribulations of the main female character but, it shows the ordeals suffered by her surrounding family. Likewise the narrator in Miguel Street also takes on the persona of a child however, this novel is set in Trinidad and the narrator is unnamed. The reader is aware that the unidentified speaker is male and this fact presents interesting contrasts between the two Bildungsroman novels with relation to male and female experiences under colonisation. The weight of Miguel Street conveys the lives of the unnamed storytellers friends and neighbours, rather than his direct family. That said, both of the postcolonial authors disclose their narratives directly from the focal point of colonised communities, coincidently both of which have political conflict in their back-drops. I found the theme of childhood very prominent throughout my reading of both Dangarembgas and Naipauls novels. Both authors use of children as narrators created a sincere naivety something which I do not feel would have been achievable through more experienced relaters. However, I am not suggesting that everything related in the narratives is entirely impartial. Both children, Tambu and the unnamed narrator, encounter, and illustrate to the reader, their lives after the initial occurrence of colonialism on their very different countries. Both young people also experience extreme poverty but, of course whilst Tambu is initially raised on the homestead, the latter develops in to an adult in a much more industrial area. These contrasting, yet ironically similar, lifestyles in the texts reveal the collective impact that colonisation can have on citizens oppressed by colonial rule, irrelevant of their precise locations. Although there are definite similarities between the experiences of Tambu and the unnamed narrator, womanhood serves as an extremely prominent theme in Nervous Conditions. Miguel Street, on the other hand, focuses the readers main attention on the experiences of male hood. This is not to suggest that the women in Naipauls novel do not encompass a purpose, I am merely implying that, through my reading of the text, the male occurrences in the novel are at the forefront of the readers attention. The opening line of Dangarembgas novel, ‘I was not sorry when my brother died. immediately insinuates that the novel will contain some aspects of struggle and resistance. What is most remarkable however is the fact that this powerful statement is declared by a female character, a character that is of a young age at the death of her sibling. Tambu is clearly seen to suffer at the hands of her brother, right up until his death. The narrators destitute parents use what little income they obt ain to send Nhamo to school. This lack of money for educational means highlights the inability of poor, black families, living in colonial areas, of ever ridding themselves from such their current situations. However, the narrators destitute parents decision to provide schooling solely for the male child of the family reveals an awfully apparent situation of female inequality. Nhamos harsh words towards Tambu, after her attempts to grow maize in order to send herself to school, provide a fine example of the oppression felt by the women in the novel. Nhamo uses Tambus femaleness to belittle her when he remarks, ‘Did you really think you could send yourself to school? This satisfactory tone in Nhamos words, as well as his unkindness in stealing Tambus maize, reveals the double struggle experienced by the women in text. MaShingayi, Tambus mother, poignantly highlights the situation of black women when she informs her daughter that life for her, ‘with the poverty of blacknes s on one side and the weight of womanhood on the other, will not be trouble-free. The women in Nervous Conditions endure domination in two different ways; not only are the females in the novel subjugated for being black, they are also repressed for being women. Further evidence in the novel of female strain is through the use of Nyasha and her mother, Maiguru. Although both women are black, they are educated and are reasonably wealthy in comparison with Tambus direct family. Nevertheless, Maiguru and her daughter inevitably still suffer nervous conditions. Nyashas personal toil becomes extremely apparent when she brawls with her father, Babamukuru. Babamukura, the head and main provider for his entire family is highly educated and greatly respected. On Babamukurus return from England with his family, Jeremiah, Tambus father, repeatedly refers to his brother as ‘Our returning prince. There is a great family celebration and the entire family is relieved at their ‘returning hero [s] homecoming. The obvious reason for the admiration of Babamukura is his educative status. Tambu, later in the novel, relates her uncles education with his superiority when she remarks, ‘he had made himself plenty of power. Plenty of power. Plenty of money. A lot of education. Plenty of everything. Unfortunately however, Babamukurus educated daughter and wife do not experience equivalent praise and control. Nyasha and her father, after a continuing conflict of principles, furiously exchange physical blows. Babamukuru scolds her daughter for defying his morals and eventually ‘condem[ns her] to whoredom. In contrast to Nyashas weighty presence in the novel is the heavy absence of her brother Chido. For example, Chido does not attend the Christmas celebrations with his family at the homestead. Unlike Nyasha, Chido is given full reign to do whatever he pleases and go wherever he desires. Although Babamukuru is ‘disappointed that his son will not be accompanying his relatives, there is no transference of harsh words between the two males. It seems to be the case that Babamukuru is gloomy at his sons absence not for the reason of dissatisfaction but for the loss of well-educated male company. The aspect of female inferiority is all too obvious through the contrasting attitudes of Babamukuru towards his son and daughter. Nyasha, according to Tambu, is ‘a victim of her femaleness, a ‘Femaleness as opposed and inferior to maleness. Evidence of the accuracy poignant comment about female suffering in the novel is not sparse. Nyashas development of an eating disorder, along w ith her mental breakdown later in the novel, reveals that not only is Nyasha affected psychologically by her suppression but her physical self is also jeopardised. It is clear that Nyasha loses her sense of self through visiting England and then returning to her country of origin, Zimbabwe. Nyasha confesses her personal damage to Tambu when she claims that she and her brother are ‘hybrids. Tambu also experiences her cousins alter ego when she is searching for Nyasha shortly before leaving to attend Sacred Heart. Tambu sadly finds Nyasha ‘reminding her of the closed girl who had come from England in a pink mini-dress, not the cousin and friend she had mellowed into in the three years since then. The extremity of Nyashas condition becomes clear on Tambus return from the convent school. Tambu describes Nyasha as ‘grotesquely unhealthy from the vital juices she flushed down the toilet and, she gives the reader a commentary of her nervous breakdown. After Nyasha ‘ rampaged, shredding her history books between her teeth, breaking mirrors, her clay pots, and jabbing the fragments viciously into her flesh, her parents finally realise that their daughter is genuinely suffering. Nyashas uncertainty about where she belongs and, according to Tambus mother, ‘the Englishness, ultimately leads to her downfall. Similar to the frustrations felt by Nyasha, although not to the same extremity, are the hardships experienced by Maiguru. Maiguru, although educated, does not receive comparable respect to Babamukuru, from Tambus direct family. Whilst Tambus uncle is welcomed home with an almost royal status, Maiguru attracts little of the praise given by the relatives. Maiguru is belittled by Babamukurus family and Babamukuru provides her with no real support For example, Lucia remarks to Maiguru, ‘Dont worry yourself, Maiguru. The matter concerns Babamukuru. This dismissal by Lucia, along with constant disagreement with Babamukuru about the running of her own household inevitably causes Maiguru to leave her family however she is never really able to escape her situation. Nyasha solemnly claims that her mothers homecoming is ‘such a waste with regards to Maiguru having the possibility to better her lifestyle. Maiguru obviously feels that inevitably she should be at home with her family h owever, it is clear that this believed duty is at the expense of a career of her own. Although the educated Maiguru does have an opportunity for escape, the restraints of her family life are holding her back from a desired profession. It seems to be the case that for the women in Nervous Conditions, to escape from colonial lands and male oppression, one has to leave their family life behind them. By exploring the life experiences of Nyasha and her mother, it can without doubt be supposed that education for women does not offer the same power that it puts forward for men. It would seem that for women, irrelevant of their schooling, there really is no real escape from colonialism or their own men. Fanon, although a highly influential writer, does not tend to regard femaleness in his writings. Fanon claims, ‘My blackness was there And it tormented me, pursued me, disturbed me, angered me. Although these aspects are extremely apparent to the black men in Miguel Street, Nervous Conditions reveals Fanons experiences being largely dedicated female characters. However, as we have already seen, Dangarembgas women are not only imprisoned by their black but also by their femaleness, by men. Nervous Conditions, its title being taken from the introduction by Jean-Paul Sartre to Frantz Fanons The Wretched of the Earth, is unmistakably a feminist re-writing of Fanon.[1] Contrasting with the women as the main focal point in Nervous Conditions, it is the mens experiences and struggles in Miguel Street which makes up the bulk of the novel. Although some of the women in Naipauls novel are seen as victims at the hands of men, the males in the book are often seen as equally foolish, if not more so than the women. Whilst Babamukuru is highly respected by most in Nervous Conditions, Naipauls George is seen as extremely idiotic and compared to a ‘donkey. After the death of Georges wife, whom the reader is led to assume died at the hands of her husband, the unnamed narrator remarks how George ‘went about crying in the streets, beating his chest. This mocking, monkey-like image is far from the genteel representation of Babamukuru. Another illustration of male mocking in the novel is through the use of Man-man. Laughter is a substantial theme in Miguel Street and almost everyone in the novel, at some point, laughs or is laughed at. Man-man is no exc eption. After it is revealed that Man-man always receives ‘exactly three votes when he puts himself ‘up for every election, Hat remarks that ‘Perhaps [it] is two jokers that have voted for Man-man, as well as himself. The idea that this male figure only obtains electoral support from two people who are ultimately ridiculing his sense of self emphasises male weakness in the novel. The scorning towards Man-man continues when he is illustrated as the ultimate irrational fool. After deciding to ‘crucify his-self, Man-man remarks to the surrounding people, â€Å"Stone, stone, STONE me, brethren! Although this behaviour is absurd, I as a reader could sympathise with Man-man for his attempt at escape from the confines of his life. However, as soon as the male extremist shouts, ‘I go settle with that son of a bitch who pelt a stone at me., the bafflement simply conveys Man-man as ludicrous. Inevitably, the contempt shown towards many of the male figures in the novel could be due to Naipauls own personal hatred of Caribbean people. Naipaul was treated extremely badly by his Afro-Caribbean neighbours, which inevitably led to an acquired detestation for them that still remains to this day.[2] Some postcolonial countries go so far as to view Naipaul as a racist.[3] On the other hand, the use of characters such as George and Man-man may be for sympathetic devises. Man-man is conveyed as a pathetic character however, his search for a sense of self echoes the behaviour of Nyasha in Nervous Conditions. The narrator remarks, ‘The authorities kept [Man-man] for observation, Then for good. This occurrence highlights a double oppression. Not only is Man-mans sense of self trapped by colonialism but it is also confined by law enforcement. Similarly, Nyasha is trapped by her femaleness as well as by colonialism. Both characters produced in me a sense of pity; both individuals act irrationally to attempt to free themselves from their surrounding restraints however there is no escape for either. Although most of the male figures in Nervous Conditions are revealed as ridiculous, Elias, the son of the detested George, makes real attempts at bettering his life, and inevitably escaping from life in Miguel Street, through schooling. The narrator claims, ‘I was prepared to believe that [Elias] would become a doctor some day. Unfortunately however, the young man is unable to achieve the desired grades and is destined to life as a cart driver. The inability to escape from his disheartening destiny, without appropriate qualifications, highlights further the importance of education. Without education, men in the novel have no choice but to exist in poverty in colonial lands. Due to Naipauls negative judgements of Caribbean people there is some ambiguity in the narrative about whether Elias situation is presented by the author to generate sympathy or scorn. The fact that Elias has lost his mother generated compassion however, the use of other characters in the novel that reveal wasted chances due to lazy and brainless suggests that Elias exists in the novel just as another dim-witted black man. Another possible case of Naipauls contempt is through the use of Titus Hoyt. Although Titus Hoyt is shown as reasonably intelligent and is regarded with an evident admiration, mainly by the narrator, his achievements do not compare with those of Babamukuru. Although both Babamukuru and Titus Hoyt eventually run schooling institutions, the latter is made to seem like a fool in front of his students. For example, when Titus Hoyt battles to teach his associates Latin Boyee remarks, ‘Mr Titus Hoyt, I think you making up all this, you know, making it up as you go along. The accusative statement ultimately disparages Titus Hoyt and reflects the lack of achievements of some of the more obviously senseless characters in Naipauls novel. Even when Titus Hoyt finally gets recognition through having his photograph placed in the local newspaper, there is a suggestion that through the anonymity of the student who apparently wrote the correspondence , he composed a letter to himself praising his own ‘virtue. Even the description of Titus Hoyt as ‘pop-eyed in the photograph makes the teacher appear as a counterfeit of success. Recognition is an important factor for most of the men in Miguel Street however it seems that there is always some underlying factor which is preventing them from succeeding. Whilst the struggle of colonised lands is extremely apparent throughout this novel, it cannot be ignored that perhaps Naipaul is prohibiting the triumph of the Caribbean male figures for his own satisfaction. Although the men in Miguel Street are shown as foolish and disaster-prone compared to Babamukuru, some of the male figures in Nervous Conditions are also portrayed as idle. Tambus father, Jeremiah, for example, is shown as an extremely futile man, depending on the successes of his brother to support him and his family. It emerges that whilst ‘Babamukuru had defied ‘the weight of his poverty., Jeremiah had merely ‘cringed ‘under the evil wizards spell, the spell that is inevitably colonial rule. The use of Jeremiah as a character may be for the purpose of a mocking devise by Dangarembga to highlight Tambus success as a woman in comparison with her fathers failure as a man. Conversely, Dangarembgas use of a character like Jeremiah may also be to highlight the importance of education and, to reveal that men can suffer frustration just as women can. It becomes clear that nobody in either novel really escapes the oppressions of colonialism. Whilst the failures in Miguel Street are all too apparent, Nervous Conditions promote more subtle disappointments, mainly through women. Although the unnamed narrator gets away from Miguel Street at the end of the novel, it is only through his his mothers bribing that he is able to do this. Furthermore, although Tambu physically breaks away from her toils through genuine personal achievement, there is a psychological part of herself that remains with her previous life. Fanons comment at the opening of the essay cleverly fits in to both Dangarembga and Naipauls novels, as well as much of the other postcolonial texts I have encountered on this course. The frustration Bibliography 13 [1] [2] [3]

African American Studies Notes Essay

1. Discuss the four basic thrusts of the student movement which led to the founding of Black Studies * The Civil Rights Movement (1960) * Break down the barriers of legal separation in public accommodations * Achieve equality and justice for Blacks * Organize Blacks into a self-conscious social force capable of defining, defending and advancing their interests * SNCC emerged as a vanguard group in the CR struggle. * Mobilized, organized and politicized thousands of Black students * Politicized many White students and their leaders through recruiting and training them and bringing them to the South to work in the struggle * The Free Speech Movement (UC Berkeley, 1964) * White student protest against the rigid, restrictive and unresponsive character of the university * Demand for civil rights on campus. * The Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1965) * General student protest against the Vietnam war and university complicity in it through its cooperation with the government in recruitment and research and development programs * Launched by new leftists, especially the Students for a Democratic Society * SNCC, Us, the Congress of Racial Equality participated * Based on opposition to: * The threat the draft posed to Blacks and other males of color not covered by student deferment and especially vulnerable in the South * The government’s war against Third World liberation movements and peoples in general and Vietnam in particular * Fighting an unjust war for a nation depriving Blacks of basic and human rights * The Black Power Movement (1965) * Led to direct establishment of Black Studies * The Watts Revolt in Los Angeles. * Ushered in a new dialog about relations of power in society and the university, the pervasive character of racism, and the need for struggle to overturn the establish order and create a more just society * Stressed the importance of self-determination, need for power, relevant education, cultural grounding, studying and recovering African culture * Organizations stressed the need for the university and society to recognize the diverse cultures of the U. S. * Called on students to engage in struggle in the classrooms, on campus in general and in society to improve life of African people and society itself 2. Discuss the emergence of Black Studies at SFSU * It began in 1966 * Led by black students * It was the rising tide of the black power movement and reflected its sense of social mission and urgency * Black students at SFSC and other campuses responded to the national activism of the Black Power Movement and the Watts Revolt. * 1966 changed their name to Black Student Union (BSU) to indicate a new identity and direction. * Black students developed a black arts an culture series * BSU demanded a legitimate Black Studies Department funded by the college and controlled by black people brought stiff resistance * BSU also demanded special admissions programs for a given number of black studies but it was also resisted. 3. Identify the major groups involved and the contribution of Dr. Nathan Hare * In 1968, Dr. Hare, an author and former professor, was appointed to be coordinator of Black Studies * He was given the task to formulate an autonomous Black Studies Department * He was fired from Howard University for his activism in support of students and the struggle of â€Å"relevant education† * He continued to stress on â€Å"relevant education† when he came to SFSU * By April 1968, Hare had completed his proposal and a program for special admission for Black students * The board of trustees continually delayed implementation of the program and it is this which led to the student’s strike * The university was shut down. * Eventually the students won the strike, which ended march 1969 * San Francisco State (SFSU) became the first institution of education to establish a Black Studies program and department. * GROUPS INVOLVED: Black Power Movement, Civil Rights Movement, Free Speech Movement, Anti-Vietnam War Movement 4. What were the early academic and political concerns of the advocates of Black Studies * Academic 1) concerned with traditional white studies. White studies was seen as inadequate and a distortion of the lives and culture of African people. White studies posed whites as the exemplary model for everyone, was seen as Eurocentric. 2) White studies was also seen as resistant to change which was necessary for relevant education. Black Studies argued for the need to teach Black Studies from a black frame of mind. This later became known as Afrocentric perspective. * Political 1) concerned with the low number of blacks on campus, which was seen as racist exclusion to maintain a white monopoly. So it was demanded that special admission and recruitment efforts were made to solve this problem. 2) Concerned with the treatment of racism. Sought out to make blacks respected and politically involved on campus. 3) Concerned with social problems of the black community and how black students and black studies could address and solve them. 5. What were the early objectives of Black Studies * To teach the Black experience in all its variedness and with special attention to history, culture, and current issues. * Black Studies assemble and create a body of knowledge that contributed to intellectual and political emancipation. (Developing an intellectual and dependent mind and using that knowledge in the interest of Black and human freedom). * Create intellectuals who were dedicated to community service and stressed the importance for Black intellectuals who were conscious, capable, and committed to Black liberation and a higher level of human life. * To nurture, maintain, and continue expansion of an equally beneficial relationship between the campus and the community. Dr. Nathan Hare â€Å" We must bring community to the campus and the campus to the community†. * To establish and confirm its position in the academy as a discipline essential to the educational project and to any real conception of a quality education. (Both an academic and political challenge). Chapter Two Study Questions 4. Discuss the emergence of the Afrocentric initiative and Molefi Asante’s founding role in it. * Emerging in the late 70s and finding its theoretical foundation in a work by Molefi Asante titled Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change and published in 1980 * Asante introduced Afrocentricity as the indispensable perspective of the Black Studies project and initiated a wide-ranging discourse which had both academic and social implications and consequences * Asante energized Black Studies discourse and gave a fresh and added thrust to the pursuit of new research directions in Black Studies with his insistence on African location or centeredness, African agency, and an African frame of reference in research and methodology and intellectual production * He became a much sought after lecturer and commentator * He defines Afrocentrism as a term used to negate and miscast Afrocentricity by its opponents 5. What does multiculturalism and pluralism have in common? * Multiculturalism can be defined as thought and practice organized around respect for human diversity * Expression in four basic ways: * Mutual respect for each people and culture as a unique and equally valuable way of being human in the world * Mutual respect for each people’s right and responsibility to speak their own special cultural truth and make their own unique contribution to society and the world * Mutual commitment to the constant search for common ground in the midst of our diversity * Mutual commitment to an ethics of sharing in order to build the world we all want and deserve to live in * Pluralism * Based on exceptional values as determined by the host of society Chapter Four Studying Questions 1. What arguments does Van Sertima make to prove African presence in Olmec civilization? * Unearthed evidence like more Olmec heads, especially one at tres zapotes showing Ethiopian type braids; more clay sculptures of African types which reflect the coloration and texture of African hair; reaffirmation of skeletal evidence; new evidence from ancient maps; new comparisons of African and south African pyramids; and further discussion on dating of the voyages. 2. What are some basic misconceptions about the holocaust of enslavement? Discuss its impact. * The enslavement was not a â€Å"trade† but instead the whole process by which captives were obtained on African soil was through warfare, trickery, banditry and kidnapping. * Europeans blame Arabs and Africans for participation in the process of enslavement, however they were always the ones benefitting from it. Basically, what looked like an Arab-controlled â€Å"trade† was in fact a European dominated â€Å"trade† with Europeans using Arabs as middlemen. * Although some Africans enslaved others, it was a part of their culture and they were able to be civil with the rest of society. * Impact: depopulation through mass murder, societal disruption/destruction, forced transfer of populations, caused loss of youth and skilled personnel, thus affected scientific, technological and cultural progress of africs. Economic destruction. 3. What was the basis for enslavement and some of its basic aspects? * Based on brutality, cultural genocide, and machinery of control. * Brutality: physical, psychological, sexual * Cultural genocide: destruction of political identities and ethnic units, families, cultural leaders, the outlawing of African languages. * Machinery of control: involved five mechanisms of control- laws, coercive bodies, the church, politically divisive strategies, plantation punishments * 4. List and discuss the major forms of resistance to enslavement * Day-to-day resistance: daily refusal and challenge with which Africans confronted the enslavement system. Included sabotage, breaking tools, destroying crops etc. * Abolitionism (underground railroad). * Emigrationism: the push to emigrate back to Africa or go elsewhere where Africans could be free. * Armed resistance: revolts, ship mutinies, etc. * Cultural resistance: used culture to inspire and maintain one’s humanity through dances, moral narratives, music etc. 5. What were some of the basic reasons for the failure of reconstruction? * White terrorist societies intensified. Ex: ku klux klan * Congress did not give blacks the support they needed and they were essentially reintegrated back into the southern economy under semi-enslaved conditions as sharecroppers. * â€Å"Black codes† (segregation and discrimination) and they didn’t receive land, forcing them back to the plantation. * Supreme court’s benefit through rulings favorable to the south * The Hayes-Tilden compromise in 1877- president hayes granted south federal troop withdrawal, leaving blacks to fend for themselves in racist society 6. What were some of the reasons for the great migration? * To escape the racist south * Wanted to escape crop failures, natural disasters like floods in the south * Growth of industry in the north, labor demands due to WWI * No more immigration from Europe, therefore no more unskilled laborers and domestic servants * The north promised blacks greater opportunities- recruited them 7. What were some of the major organizations founded to struggle against injustice in the early 1900s? Discuss the black womens club movement. * Rose out of African cultural traditions which stressed responsibility to family and community which led to free black women and men establishing numerous mutual aid societies during enslavement * Founded first national conference of the colored women of America which established the national association of colored women * Also the Niagra movement, the NAACP and the urban league 8. Identify the major groups and leaders of the 60s * Booker T. Washington: â€Å"major black leader of his time† * W. E. B. DuBois: white activist-scholar * Marcus Garvey: pan-africanist dedicated to building a nation-state in Africa * Ida B. Wells-Barnett: journalist, organizer, lecturer and teacher 9. What are some major challenges and achievements of the 70s, 80s and 90s? * 70s: 1. Challenges- began with recovery from the massive suppression on the black movement by COINTELRO (counterintelligence program launched by the FBI by director J. Edgar Hoover) 2. Hoover tried to stifle any form of a black revolution 3. Affirmative action- â€Å"reverse discrimination† 4. Achievements- blacks penetration and victories in electoral politics 5. Sought to build national independent power structures 6. Resurgence of pan-africanism * *80s: 1. Challenges- continuing crisis of US society, rise of the vulgar and â€Å"respectable† right, continuing struggle to rebuild a black mass movement and appropriate alliances and coalitions in order to defend black gains, win new ones and minimize losses 2. Problem of alliance and coalition 3. Achievements- heightened level of electoral political activity among blacks 4. First black governor (Virginia) * 90s: 1. Challenges- increasing negative attitude of the Supreme Court to racial injustice and affirmative action, continuation of hate crimes, veto and later passage of 1991 civil rights act, increase in poverty 2. Achievements- election of Bill Clinton and 39 blacks on congress and one black senator 10. Discuss the million persons marches. What were their similar concerns and their effect on the black community? * **Million man march/ day of absence- voiced concern about increasing racism, deteriorating social conditions, etc.and the impact on the world * -Day of absence: women organized communities to stay away from business/ school and to register people to vote and empower the community as a whole * -Created a sense of possibility and promise; after there were increases in membership in organizations, adoption rates, mentoring programs and social activism. * Million woman march- needed to energize the lives and struggles of black women * Million youth march- same thing, but with youths (not a huge turnout) * –All of these marches were a statement for self-consciousness as black men, women, and youth and the responsibility to community and struggle which this implies and requires 11. What are some major challenges of the beginning 21st century? * 2000 presidential election and voter suppression (gore and bush), tragedy and aftermath of hurricane Katrina, HIV/AIDS epidemic, continuing police abuse, deteriorating socio-economic conditions

The Empowerment Of Chinese Women Education Essay

IntroductionThis chapter aims to sketch the methods and methodological analysis used to transport out this research and intends to underscore the advantages, complexnesss and restraints of my chosen processes. This ethnographical research besides seeks to detect the ways in which Chinese adult females manage to put themselves onto a way to authorization and the jobs and successes experienced along the manner in relation to their community ‘s cultural beliefs and patterns. Malinowski asserts that: â€Å" One of the first conditions of acceptable Ethnographic work surely is that it should cover with the entirety of all societal, cultural and psychological facets of the community, for they are so interwoven that non one can be understood without taking into consideration all the others. † ( 1922: sixteen ) By taking this position into consideration this research, hence, intends to foreground the relationship between the State and the Chinese people and how instruction can assist to relieve some of the jobs experienced on both a local and national degree. It does non mean to do generalizations from the informations collected but instead to supply a snapshot position of where China is developing successfully with respect to female engagement in instruction and other public domains.The research journeyMy involvement in this field of research came approximately as a consequence of a new enterprise to open franchises of our school, the Girls ‘ Day School Trust ( GDST ) , in China. An chance arose for some of the staff to take portion in a instructor exchange for a twelvemonth to work in a Chinese international school and I was particularly acute to be a possible campaigner. I besides have experience of working with a twosome of misss who were adopted from a Chinese orphanhood and this , together with my career for instruction, heightened my involvement in the experiences of misss and adult females in Chinese schools. The possible prejudice that I may convey to this survey could integrate elements such as the relationship I had with the aforesaid household. My positions about the ways in which kids are treated in the orphanhoods could take me to hold the sentiment that all misss have a similar experience in China and are all, hence, to be ‘sympathised ‘ with before holding met them. This would besides hold prevented me from being impartial when questioning the Chinese males. As the research worker, this would besides hold positioned me unfavorably in that I will already hold placed the participant in a subjugated place themselves accordingly reproducing the stereotyped position of submissive Chinese adult females. To antagonize this I have looked really carefully at the ways in which I have posed my questionnaire and interview inquiries in order to non take the participant or set my point of view across. Bing a female research worker besides has the potency for prejudice to be in that I may favor female experiences and see them as unfair and wholly the mistake of the male population. For this ground, I besides interviewed Chinese males in order to supply a comparable profile against which adult females ‘s experiences may be gauged. My ain cultural background as a first coevals immigrant from Bangladesh may besides come into drama as it was preponderantly for the instruction and life style that my parents moved here. Chinese international pupils may hold the same aspirations and so here, excessively, there is room for deficiency of nonpartisanship which may act upon the analysis of my findings. Lang remarks on the interesting place a research worker has as the alien saying that: â€Å" The disadvantages of a survey by a alien are obvious. Less obvious are its advantages. The foreign perceiver is non hampered by the psychological prejudices which may at times block or even wholly thwart a â€Å" native † survey. There is, of class, the danger of replacing native biass with imported 1s, for the visitant is disposed to see the society he is analyzing as a reproduction of his ain. If this danger is avoided by methodological watchfulness and self-criticism, the foreign research worker is given an unusual chance to do a productive analysis. † ( 1946: seven ) This is rather an of import component to recognize due to the cultural differences involved. The methods used hold given me pertinent ways of look intoing in that even though I am showing the inquiries the participant is ever in control of what is being said, holding been given entree to the inquiries before meeting. Furthermore, Henwood ( in Woodward 2000 ) asserts that † †¦ scientific research can ne'er be entirely impersonal, disinterested, or value-free because the procedure of cognizing ever begins in the concrete contexts and material conditions of people ‘s lives, together with the point of views, positions or apprehension of the apprehender. † This places the research worker, who is an ‘outsider ‘ , in a place of ‘power ‘ and could impact on the manner in which the research is carried out. However, as this survey is focused around the subject of authorization it is necessary to hold every bit small influence as possible over the responses given by participants as any additions might be negated.Concerns of methodological analysis and methodThe research undertaken in this survey have used both data-gathering and data-analysis methodological analysiss in that the former involved directing out questionnaires every bit good as transporting out int erviews whilst the latter involved the statistical analysis of bing informations within other people ‘s research. It is preponderantly qualitative in character instead than quantitative but there will be some mention to statistical informations from other published resources. It allows me to research complex issues and experiences and does non seek to over-simplify the informations gathered hence qualitative methods have been more appropriate in this context. Analyzing the responses of merely a little figure of persons has resulted in a small-scale research but this allowed for research in existent life scenes and permitted a grade of flexibleness in informations aggregation in contrast to quantitative research which requires the mass aggregation of informations from as broad a sample as possible. Validating research is of class extremely of import in doing one ‘s work credible or else it risks going unscientific ( Hammersley 1990 ) . Troubles in retroflexing this signifier of research may be disputing but does non do the information either less existent or experienced. Woodward ( in Trumans et al 2000 ) discusses the features of qualitative research and how this signifier of research additions farther cogency via the fact that can be viewed as being strictly nonsubjective research whilst other observers may state that this type of research is subjective and has the potency to hold excessively much read into it. There is besides the job of the ‘reality ‘ presented in the findings as this can be interpreted in many ways by different people hence leting room for misunderstanding or multiple readings. However, it need non follow that the research is less believable. The research worker is able to put the scene by saying the point of position from which they are detecting this survey so that the reader is presented with a lens through which they can see the research. This should be less of a job if the research worker has already positioned themselves and acknowledges their ain potency for prejudice. Once this has been declared the research worker ‘s occupation can be made clearer and more focussed.Rationale for taking participantsThe reappraisal of related literature in Chapter 2 together with the theoretical model on authorization has identified specific groups of marginalised misss and several agencies by which societal exclusion constructs these groups therefore forestallin g them from accessing instruction and their ain way to empowerment. To farther aid this survey I will be analyzing related published paperss that emphasise the connexion between the State, registration figures and educational attainment and their relevancy in how State intervention can hold both positive and negative results. This survey will besides analyze personal experiences of instruction, societal exclusion and authorization from a scope of Chinese subjects populating in the United Kingdom every bit good as in China via the usage of an on-line questionnaire. From this group I have selected two people to interview to organize my instance analyze – two females from an urban and rural country. The relationship between these two chosen participants and their positions on household life was closely examined with peculiar mention to instruction and female authorization as a agency of deriving some penetration into the chief jobs and issues originating from them. The participants have been collated via the aid of pupils at London universities and contacts via parents and staff within the constitution I work for. Finding willing participants was one of the obstructions I faced when get downing my research so the usage of a â€Å" gatekeeper † was indispensable. This refers to a individual â€Å" who can assist the research worker with the critical concern of deriving entree to the necessary fieldwork puting † ( Denscombe 2007: 71 ) . In this survey, the gatekeeper was the Chinese pupil contact I knew through my school and who helped me to happen willing participants. Some bookmans argue that the relationship that the gatekeeper has with these contacts may hold an influence over the character of the probe. Denscombe discusses how this frequently occurs where patrons or sureties are involved. The gatekeepers involved in this survey knew of other Chinese subjects who would be able to take portion in my research and did non hold any patron or surety function to play so I am confident that the sentiments given were true. On a positive note, Denscombe discusses the place of trust which the gatekeeper is placed in by both researcher and participant so this excessively would hold a positive influence over the type of informations I collated. Due to the troubles experienced in happening participants to help my research, I felt it necessary to utilize all the people who responded to my electronic mails together with responses from all parental contacts. This accordingly became a suited signifier of sampling and is hence an illustration of non-probability sampling. They do non all have something in common. However, this survey is non intended for the intent of generalization but instead to supply a glance into existent success narratives and how they might possibly supply suggestions for policy alteration for people in similar places.Ethical ConsiderationsPermission was sought earlier and questionnaires and interviews took topographic point. Participants were besides informed that they were able to retreat from the survey at any clip. Not follow up respondents who did non wish to take part further than the on-line questionnaire. Assurance was given of this research being for my ain personal usage to guarantee that it was no n mistaken for the assemblage of information for other intents. Sensitivity was a cardinal component in this research. The Chinese community is a really private community hence my trouble in obtaining willing participants. Participants may non hold wanted to unwrap whether they were originally from an urban or rural country to me so alternatively I asked which state and town or small town they came from. The demand for privateness, namelessness and confidentiality was particularly of import as this signifier of oppugning resulted in responses which shared personal information and some unfavorable judgment of the manner things are governed in China.Data Collection processsDocumentsThis survey will do usage of a figure of literature beginnings, including mention to allow authorities publications, diaries, studies and books. Internet resources published by the World Bank, UNICEF and DFID will besides be referred to. I will be utilizing the GMR 2010 information on school registration figures and educational attainment degrees as a starting point. Thi s might let me to estimate the kind of informations being released by China and inquiry how dependable it can be.Online questionnaireIn the first case, an online questionnaire was used to derive as broad a sample as possible of sentiments from Chinese international pupils at London Universities every bit good as the few contacts I had in China but this was a really little sample from which it would non hold been possible to pull distinguishable decisions. Dalsimer and Nisonoff ( in Visvanathan et al 1997 ) noted some research which besides used Chinese pupils as an illustration of successful resistance to State policies and intercession. This gives proof to my chosen cohort of participants. Prior to the questionnaire being sent out I emailed a transcript of my inquiries to the gatekeepers so that they may go through them on to the possible participants. This had advantage of guaranting a higher figure of participants due to the fact that they could be certain that there were no ‘surprise ‘ or uncomfortable inquiries. It besides meant that participants had the chance to give the inquiries some idea before shiping on the elaborate on-line version and gave me a grade of certainty about the dependability of the informations. The nexus for the online questionnaire was sent in an electronic mail via the gatekeepers. This electronic mail besides contained within it an lineation of the type of subjects to be covered in the questionnaire. Some of my contacts in China could merely pass on via electronic mail and non by on-line study so I emailed a simpler version of the online questionnaire to them alternatively to promote maximal engagement. Brown and Dowling ( 1998 ) outline the serious restraints a research worker faces if entirely utilizing questionnaires. Electronic mail references were requested at the terminal of the questionnaire to let for follow up where permission/email reference has been granted. The questionnaire nexus was sent out by an familiarity through the constitution for whom I work. This person is analyzing at post-graduate degree at another London university and was in a place to assist happen Chinese pupils for my research. Equally far as was possible, they tried to happen me participants from both urban and rural China but this proved highly hard. The intent of the questionnaire was to dig deeper into personal experiences of China ‘s instruction system and the kinds of barriers ( teacher outlooks, parental influences and determinations taken, deficiency of school installations ) or signifiers of societal exclusion encountered every bit good as a agency of happening interesting people to instance survey in item. It was besides intended as a manner of garnering informations about the more general experiences of Chinese young person sing their gendered upbringings and success in going internationally nomadic. All participants were over the age of 18 with the purpose of geting a more experient position of instruction and gender stereotypes in China.Interviews and Case StudiesAfter collating the online questionnaire consequences two Chinese adult females were selected to explicate my instance surveies. I really much keep the same point of view as Gerson and Horowitz who assert that: â€Å" To unknot the complexnesss of large-scale societal alteration, it is necessary to analyze the elaboratenesss of single lives. Individual interviews provide the chance to analyze how large-scale societal transmutations are experienced, interpreted and finally shaped by the responses of strategic societal histrions. † ( In May 2003: 200 ) The analysis of such informations would turn out really interesting and worthwhile as it suggests ways in which societal alteration may happen. Another of import factor sing interviews and their positive properties is that they can make what the study or questionnaire can non. It allows the research worker to follow up thoughts and investigation deeper, even if this means diverting from the original set of inquiries. Responses and significances can be clarified at point of contact and so even after the interview ( Bell 2005 ) . Interviews are besides clip devouring and may discourage participants but every bit long as a maximal clip frame was given I found that my participants were more than happy to take portion. Johnson ( in Bell: 2005 ) concurs with this point. Interviews took topographic point via telephone. Any inquiries about the interview were answered before it took topographic point so as to do the participant feel at easiness with the process. Interviews were digitally recorded and so transcribed. My purpose was to happen out the sentiments of those who have experienced Chinese instruction first manus and the ways in which their households, the State and community ( for illustration instructors, other community members ) were involved in the determination devising procedure for the participants ‘ educational hereafter. These have been used in my instance surveies as peculiar illustrations of female authorization in China but it will non be possible for to pull any steadfast decisions from them. This would be an illustration of purposive sampling ( Blaxter et al 2006: 163 ) . I have chosen to utilize the instance survey method of research due to the little sample of participants available to me. However, the instance survey is agrees to be best suited to little scale research ( Blaxter et Al: 2006 ) whilst besides leting me to dig profoundly into the person ‘s experiences. The instance survey attack is besides a really ‘real ‘ method supplying a clear image of person ‘s experiences instead than the bland and impersonal character of informations collected via questionnaires merely. It enables me, as the research worker, to research the complex features of Chinese societal life ( Cohen et Al in Blaxter et Al: 2006 ) , how cohesive the State, household and community are and how these influences and relationships impact on the person. By showing ‘real ‘ people who have experienced empowerment via their ability to entree good beginnings of instruction we be able to pull possible scenarios that might be replicated on a wider graduated table, possibly with the aid of NGOs. This would necessitate farther research with the cooperation of the State. However, it should besides be noted that there are disadvantages to composing up instance surveies in that they are notoriously hard to analyze.TriangulationThis method seeks to formalize one ‘s ain research by comparing it to other published beginnings. I will be comparing my findings with that of Tsui and Rich ‘s ( 2002 ) to detect whether or non adult females are sing authorization and greater degrees of liberty as a consequence of life in an urban country where the one-child policy is purely enforced. Hannum ‘s assorted large-scale undertakings on misss ‘ instruction in Gansu are besides of relevancy. This means of triangulation would let me to see what adult females are truly sing in urban China in order to see how this compares with rural China. It would be enlightening to detect whether Tsui and Rich ‘s research can back up m y findings and if non whether there were peculiar differences originating from the instance surveies which might explicate this.Datas AnalysisThe research has focused on the narrative component of the questionnaires and interviews as opposed to the statistical side but as my sample involved so few people it would non hold been appropriate to make this anyway. I found that the pupil cohort of participants had stronger positions about their upbringings and instruction. Statisticss have been consulted from other published beginnings in order to clear up the current place of educational registration and attainment in China. Datas from the online questionnaires has been presented in a tabulated signifier in order to be able to cross-index and comparison responses with greater easiness. Coding has been used to abridge every bit good as to foreground any similar responses. . Interviews were transcribed from a digitally recorded version and so compared harmonizing to their grouped subjects in order to help the my analysis. These were besides coded and themed. However, this was rather ambitious as the sentiments given were rather wide. An indispensable component of this survey is to analyze the informations given in the instance survey illustrations by comparing and contrasting the assorted sentiments given. The procedure of information analysis will be double. The instance survey findings of the urban participant will ab initio be described and discussed in item whilst being cross-referenced with the findings of the Literature Review and theoretical model. Following this there will be an analysis of the rural participant to measure whether there is a disagreement between these two countries. Differences between the genders will besides be profiled. The findings will besides mention back to the research discussed in the Literature Review. Bogdan and Biklen ( 1982: 145 ) refer to this signifier of qualitative informations analysis as â€Å" working with informations, organizing it, interrupting it into manageable units, synthesising it, seeking for forms, detecting what is of import and what is to be learned, and m ake up one's minding what you will state others. †Restrictions of my surveyThere were restrictions of researching a state with a different linguistic communication to my ain and jobs with accessing translated policy paperss. My ain experience of seeking to entree Chinese diaries and informations have been met with this linguistic communication barrier and so relevant stuff may already be in relation to my research but these are n't accessible by anyone except by those who can talk and read in Chinese. Using Chinese subjects besides highlighted jobs of interlingual rendition and reading. In these instances I was fortunate plenty to be able to clear up replies with the person. Having to trust on merely a few participants besides leaves room for their ain prejudice to pervade the informations. Cross-referencing with the positions of people who took separating the online questionnaire may assist in some ways to chase away this. On a theoretical note, Batliwala ( 1993 ) emphasises the jobs of mensurating authorization as the term 'empowerment ‘ is a combative one and so mensurating it would besides be far from straightforward. Kabeer has outlined ways of mensurating authorization but in China, where cosmopolitan instruction itself is hard to estimate, authorization presented itself as an country worthy of considerable scrutiny. By transporting out this research it may be possible to light the construct of authorization being drawn out from existent life experiences.

Mr Warren Buffett And His Influence On The World Of...

The current era has showed us an evolution with a number of entrepreneurships. However, there have been few dynamic personalities on earth, in the past and existing, which have portrayed impeccable leadership skills. These leaders have not only made followers but have also endeavoured to excel in personification. They have the ability to stand up rigidly on their principles by pulling the fruit of triumph at every step. Showcasing them as a leader hence forth becomes a priority. Their followers are overwhelmed and have multiple reasons to follow them. One of such business leaders of this century is Mr. Warren Buffett. Warren Buffett has been a versatile investor and a dynamic businessman of this era. His contribution to the world of business and finance is endless. Holding an indigenous attitude and as a philanthropist he has surpassed the hurdles to a personified prodigy. He was born in 1930 in Omaha, Nebraska and since then after acquiring bullish ventures as well he has continued to reside there. His family consists of himself, his step wife and three children. His wife Susan Buffett passed away in 2004 post which he is married to his age old friend Astrid Menks. Buffett always has described himself as a philanthropist and he is indeed a gem of a personality. Warren Buffett has some great principles of life that have helped him to reach the mark of success. Warren Buffett a good orator and a good reader has some qualities that he has not just by birth butShow MoreRelatedBerkshire Hathaway Phenomenon In the Context of Modern Finance Theory2608 Words   |  11 PagesContext of Modern Finance Theory Septtember 2013 Berkshire Hathaway Phenomenon In the Context of Modern Finance Theory Introduction Over the 46 years ending December 2012, Warren Buffett (Berkshire Hathaway) has achieved a compound, after-tax, rate of return in excess of 20% p.a. 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